Ibhlog

Izinto eziyinxalenye yeNkqubo yoMbono woMshini

2024-08-13 16:29:49

Imakethi yombono woomatshini behlabathi lonke ngo-2018-2030

Iinkqubo zokubona oomatshini zidlala indima ebalulekileyo kwi-automation yanamhlanje yemizi-mveliso. Ngokutsho kweGrand View Research, imakethi yokubona oomatshini yehlabathi yayixabisa i-USD 20.38 yeebhiliyoni ngo-2024 kwaye kulindeleke ukuba ifikelele kwi-USD 41.74 yeebhiliyoni ngo-2030 (umthombo: Uphando lweGrand View). Olu kukhula luqhutywa yimfuno yokwenziwa kwemveliso engenaziphene kunye nokuhlolwa okuqhutywa yi-AI. Embindini wezi nkqubo, iikhompyutha zoshishino zibonelela ngamandla okucubungula athembekileyo afunekayo kuhlalutyo lwemifanekiso olukhawulezayo kunye nokudibanisa neenethiwekhi zefektri, nto leyo ezenza zibe yimfuneko kwizicelo ze-Industry 4.0. Ngokungafaniyo nokuseta iikhamera eziqhelekileyo, umbono womatshini ungaphezulu kokuthatha imifanekiso nje; ikwamalunga nokuyiqonda ngokuchanekileyo nangokukhawuleza ngexesha langempela.

Izinto ezibalulekileyo kwinkqubo yokujonga umatshini ziquka izixhobo zokufumana imifanekiso, izibane, i-optics, iiyunithi zokucubungula, kunye nesoftware yokujonga. Ezi zinto zisebenza kunye ukwenza imisebenzi equka ukufumanisa iziphene, ukuchongwa kwenxalenye, isikhokelo serobhothi, kunye nokuqinisekiswa komgangatho kumacandelo ahlukeneyo.

Kutheni Umbono Womatshini Ubalulekile

Ukubaluleka kweenkqubo zokubona koomatshini kuxhomekeke ekubeni zikwazi ukunciphisa iimpazamo zabantu, ukwandisa isantya semveliso, kunye nokugcina umgangatho wemveliso ungaguquguquki. Oku kubaluleke kakhulu kumacandelo afana nala:

Ukuveliswa kweemoto – ukujonga iziphene zomphezulu kunye nokulungelelaniswa kwenxalenye
Indibano ye-elektroniki – ukuhlolwa kwe-PCB kunye nokuqinisekiswa kwe-solder
Amayeza – ukuqinisekisa ileyibhile kunye nokujonga umgangatho wokugcwalisa ibhotile
Ukutya neziselo – ukuhlolwa kokupakishwa kunye nokufunyanwa kongcoliseko

Izinto Eziphambili Zenkqubo Yokubona Umatshini

Inkqubo yombono womatshini isebenza kakuhle kuphela njengezinto zayo ezizodwa. Icandelo ngalinye linegalelo elikhulu ekuguqulweni kwedatha ebonakalayo eluhlaza ibe ziingcamango ezisebenzayo eziqhuba ukuzenzekela, ziphucule umgangatho wemveliso, kwaye ziqinisekise ukuhambelana kwenkqubo yemizi-mveliso. Nangona uqwalaselo lunokwahluka ngokuxhomekeke kwisicelo, uninzi lweenkqubo zombono womatshini ziquka ezi zinto zilandelayo ziphambili:

1. Izixhobo Zokufumana Imifanekiso

Eyona nto iphambili kwinkqubo nganye yokubona komatshini kukho ikhamera yemizi-mvelisoEzi khamera zithatha imifanekiso yesisombululo esiphezulu sento ekujoliswe kuyo. Ngokuxhomekeke kwisicelo, iinkqubo zingasebenzisa:

Iikhamera zokuskena indawo – kwimifanekiso enamacala amabini
Iikhamera zokuskena umgca – ukuhlolwa kothutho olukhawulezayo
Iikhamera ze-3D – uhlalutyo lobunzulu kunye nokuhlolwa kwevolumu

I isenzi somfanekiso (ngesiqhelo I-CCD okanye I-CMOS) efakwe kwikhamera imisela umgangatho womfanekiso, isantya, kunye novakalelo lokukhanya.

2. Iinkqubo zokukhanyisa

Ukukhanya kuchaphazela ngokuthe ngqo ukuchaneka kunye nokuthembeka kokufotwa kwemifanekiso. Iindidi eziqhelekileyo ukukhanya kombono womatshini ziquka:

Isibane sangasemva - ilungele ukufota nge-silhouette
Isibane seringi – ukukhanya okufanayo kokujonga umphezulu
Ukukhanya kwe-Coaxial - iyasebenza kwiindawo ezikhanyayo
Isibane seDome - isusa izithunzi kunye nezinto ezibalaseleyo

Ukukhanya okufanelekileyo kuqinisekisa umahluko, ukucacakunye ukufana, zonke ezi zinto zibalulekileyo kuhlalutyo lwemifanekiso oluya phambili.

3. I-Optics kunye neLenses

Iilensi zokubona koomatshini gxila ukukhanya kwisenzi somfanekiso. Ukukhethwa kwelensi kusekelwe kumbono, umgama wokusebenza, kunye nesisombululo esifunekayo. Iilensi zeTelecentric Zisetyenziswa rhoqo xa kufuneka imifanekiso echanekileyo nengenasiphazamiso. Ukongeza, izihluzi ezibonakalayo inokuphucula ukungafani kwaye ivale amaza okukhanya angafunekiyo.

4. Ukucubungula izixhobo zekhompyutha

Enye yezona zinto zibalulekileyo kwinkqubo yokubona komatshini yiyunithi yokucubungula imifanekiso, edla ngokwakhiwa kwikhompyutha yemizi-mveliso eqinileyo. Ngokungafaniyo neePC ezikumgangatho wabathengi, iikhompyutha zemizi-mveliso zenzelwe ukusebenza ngokuthembekileyo kwiindawo ezinzima, apho uthuli, ukungcangcazela, kunye namaqondo obushushu aphezulu zixhaphakileyo. Zibonelela ngozinzo kunye nomjikelo wobomi bemveliso obude obufunekayo kwimisebenzi yemizi-mveliso engama-24/7.

Ikhompyutha yemizi-mveliso esetyenziselwa ukubona komatshini idla ngokuba nezi zinto zilandelayo:

IiCPU kunye neeGPU ezisebenza kakuhle ukuze kucutshungulwe idatha enkulu yemifanekiso okanye kusetyenziswe ii-algorithms ezisekelwe kwi-AI.
Ii-interfaces ze-I/O ezityebileyo ezifana neGigE, i-USB 3.0, kunye neCamera Link ukuze kuqhagamshelwe iikhamera ezininzi ngaxeshanye.
Izithuba ezinokwandiswa kwii-frame grabbers, ii-GPU card, okanye ii-AI accelerators.
Inkxaso yobushushu obubanzi kunye ne-voltage, ukuqinisekisa ukusebenza okuzinzileyo kwiindawo zoshishino.

Ngokusebenza njengengqondo yenkqubo, iikhompyutha zoshishino zivumela ukwenza izigqibo ngexesha langempela kunye nokuhlanganiswa okungenamthungo nee-PLC, iirobhothi, kunye neenethiwekhi zefektri. Oku kuzenza zibe yimfuneko kuyo nayiphi na inkqubo yokujonga umatshini esebenza kakhulu.

5. Isoftware yoMbono

Ekugqibeleni, isoftware yombono womatshini yenza imisebenzi efana ukuqatshelwa kwepateni, I-OCR, ukucazulula ikhowudi yebhakhowudi, uhlalutyo lwe-blobkunye ukufunyanwa kwezipheneAmaqonga esoftware anokuba ngawabucala okanye abe ngumthombo ovulekileyo (umz., I-OpenCV, I-Falcon, I-Cognex VisionPro), kwaye zibonelela ngeendawo zokucwangcisa imifanekiso zemisebenzi eyenzelwe wena.

Icandelo	Umsebenzi
Ikhamera	Ibamba idatha yomfanekiso okrwada
Ukukhanyisa	Iphucula ukubonakala kunye nomahluko
I-Optics	Igxila kwaye ihluze ukukhanya okungenayo
Iprosesa	Ihlaziya umfanekiso ngexesha langempela
Isoftware	Isebenzisa ii-algorithms kwaye itolika umfanekiso

Xa zizonke, ezi zinto zenza umanyano oludibeneyo uyilo lwenkqubo yombono okwaziyo ukwenza izigqibo ezikrelekrele kwii-millisecond. Ukukhethwa kunye nokuhlanganiswa kwecandelo ngalinye kufuneka kuhambelane neemfuno ezithile ze umsebenzi wokuhlola, okusingqongileyokunye isantya semveliso.

Izixhobo zoLungiso lweMifanekiso

Nje ukuba umfanekiso ufunyenwe ngekhamera kunye ne-optics, inyathelo elilandelayo elibalulekileyo kwi-a inkqubo yombono womatshini yi ukucutshungulwa komfanekisoEli nqanaba linoxanduva lokuhlalutya idatha ebonakalayo ngexesha langempela kwaye liyiguqule ibe yimveliso enokwenzeka efana iimpawu zokudlula/zokungaphumeleli, imilinganiselookanye imiyalelo yerobhothiUkusebenza kakuhle kweli nqanaba kuxhomekeke kakhulu ekusebenzeni nasekufanelekeni kwe izixhobo zokucubungula umfanekiso.

Kutheni Ukucubungula Imifanekiso Kwizixhobo Zekhompyutha Kubalulekile

Kwiindawo zoshishino, imisebenzi yokujonga koomatshini idla ngokubandakanya imigca yemveliso ekhawulezayo, ukwenza izigqibo ngokungakhawulezi kakhulukunye ii-algorithms ezintsonkothileyoNgoko ke, inkqubo kufuneka icubungule idatha enkulu yemifanekiso ngokuchanekileyo nangesantya. Oku kufuna iyunithi yokucubungula ezinikeleyo enokuxhasa:

Ixesha elilungile uhlalutyo lomfanekiso
Ibhendi ephezulu ukudluliselwa kwedatha
Ukuhambelana neentlobo ngeentlobo iindawo zokujonga ikhamera
Ukuthembeka okuqinileyo kwi iindawo zoshishino

Iintlobo zezixhobo zehardware zokucubungula umfanekiso

Uhlobo lweHardware	Inkcazo	Amatyala aqhelekileyo okusetyenziswa
Abalawuli Bombono	Iikhompyutha ezincinci, ezakhiwe ngenjongo ethile ezinesoftware yokubona efakwe kwangaphambili	Imigca edibeneyo yokwenza izinto ngokuzenzekelayo kunye neyokuhlola
Iikhompyutha zemizi-mveliso (ii-IPC)	IiPC zeModular ezineeCPU, iiGPU, okanye iiFPGA ezisebenza kakuhle	Ukuseta okuntsonkothileyo okanye okuneekhamera ezininzi
Ii-Frame Grabbers	Iibhodi zonxibelelwano ezibamba kwaye zenze idatha yemifanekiso ibe yedijithali	Imisebenzi yokufota ekhawulezayo neyokubambezeleka okuphantsi
Iikhamera ezikrelekrele	Iikhamera ezine-processing engaphakathi kunye ne-I/O ability	Iinkqubo ezisasazwe kwiindawo ezahlukeneyo okanye ezixinzelelweyo kwindawo

Nganye ineenzuzo ezikhethekileyo ngokusekelwe kubunzima besicelo, imida yendawo, kunye neemfuno zokucubungula.

Iikhamera ezikrelekrele xa kuthelekiswa neenkqubo ezisekelwe kwiPC

Iikhamera ezikrelekrele ziiyunithi ezizimeleyo ezidibanisa ukubanjwa kwemifanekiso, ukucubungula, kunye nolawulo lwe-I/O. Zilungele ukufakwa okuncinci kunye nemisebenzi elula yokuhlola. Iingenelo zazo ziquka:

Ukuncipha kweentambo kunye nophawu lweenyawo
Ixabiso eliphantsi lenkqubo
Ukusasazwa okulula

Nangona kunjalo, kwizicelo ezifuna ulungelelwaniso lweekhamera ezininzi, Ukucutshungulwa komfanekiso we-3Dokanye Umbono osekelwe kwi-AI, enamandla ngakumbi i-PC yemizi-mveliso okanye isilawuli sokubona iyakhethwa.

Iiteknoloji zokuQhuba ukuKhawulezisa

Njengoko usetyenziso lokujonga koomatshini lukhula ngobunzima, ukukhawuleziswa kwezixhobo zekhompyutha kuba yinto ebalulekileyo. Iinkqubo zokubona ezisebenza kakuhle zihlala ziquka:

Ii-GPU (IiYunithi zokuCwangcisa iMifanekiso) – zokucubungula imifanekiso ngaxeshanye kunye nokufunda nzulu
Ii-FPGA (IiField Programmable Gate Arrays) – ze-latency ephantsi kakhulu kunye ne-deterministic processing
Ii-DSP (Iiprosesa zeDijithali zeSignali) – zokulawula imifanekiso ngexesha langempela kwiinkqubo ezifakiweyo

Ezi zinto zivumela ukuphunyezwa kwee-algorithms zombono ngexesha langempela ezifana ukufunyanwa komphetho, ukulandelela izinto, ukufanisa iipatenikunye Ukwakhiwa ngokutsha kwe-3D.

Izinto eziqwalaselwayo kwiNdalo kunye nokuHlanganisa

Imfuno yeendawo zoshishino omelele, ngaphandle kwefeni, kwaye rhoqo Ingafakwa kwi-DIN-rail izixhobo zokumelana nokungcangcazela, ukuguquguquka kobushushu, kunye nokuphazamiseka kwe-electromagnetic. Ngaphezu koko, ukuhlanganiswa okungenamthungo kunye IiPLC, iinkqubo zerobhothikunye Isoftware ye-SCADA ibalulekile kwimisebenzi yokusebenza ngokuzenzekelayo.

Izicelo Kuwo Wonke Amashishini

Iinkqubo zokubona koomatshini, ixhaswa ziikhompyutha zoshishino ezithembekileyo, ziye zatshintsha ukusuka kwizixhobo zokuhlola ezikwinqanaba elithile zaba zizinto eziphambili ze ukwenziwa kwezinto ngobuchuleNamhlanje, usetyenziso lwabo lugubungela phantse onke amacandelo emizi-mveliso—ukusuka kwi-elektroniki echanekileyo ukuya kukhuseleko lokutya. Ezi nkqubo zibonelela ngokuchaneka okungenakuthelekiswa nanto, ukuhambelana, kunye nesantya, ezibalulekileyo ekufezekiseni ulawulo lomgangatho oluphezulu kunye nokuthobela imigangatho eqinileyo yemizi-mveliso.

1. Ishishini leeMoto

I icandelo leemoto yayingomnye wabantu bokuqala abasebenzisa umbono womatshini. Le teknoloji ixhasa:

Ukufunyanwa kweziphene zomphezulu kwiiphaneli zomzimba kunye nomsebenzi wokupenda
Ukulinganisa ubukhulu izinto ezifana neediski zeebhuleki okanye amazinyo egiya
Ukuqinisekiswa kwendibano, ukuqinisekisa ukubekwa ngokuchanekileyo kwenxalenye kunye nokujonga indawo
Ukuhlolwa komthungo we-Weld ngomgangatho kunye nokungaguquguquki

Iinkqubo zokubona iimoto zihlala zidibana iingalo zerobhothi kwaye Iinkqubo ze-PLC ukuze ufumane impendulo yexesha langempela kwaye ulawulo oluvaliweyo kwimigca yemveliso ekhawulezayo.

Izicelo zokuZenzekela koMbono woMatshini-weShishini

2. Ukwenziwa kwee-elektroniki kunye nee-semiconductors

Kwizinto ze-elektroniki, apho ukwenziwa kwezinto zibe ncinci kunye nokuchaneka kubaluleke kakhulu, umbono womatshini udlala indima ephambili koku:

Ukuhlolwa kwePCB (amalungu e-solder, ubukho bezinto, i-polarity)
Ukubopha nge-die kwaye ulungelelwaniso lwe-wafer
Ukufunyanwa kokuqhekeka okuncinci kwiglasi okanye kwi-silicon components
Ukuqinisekiswa kokumakisha nge-laser kwii-microchips okanye kwiibhodi zesekethe

Iinkqubo zokubona zinceda ukuhlangabezana nokunyamezelana okungqongqo kakhulu kwaye zinciphise inkunkuma iindawo zemveliso ezinomthamo ophezulu, ezikumgangatho ophantsi.

3. Ishishini lokutya neziselo

Ishishini lokutya lixhomekeke kwiinkqubo zokubona ukuhlolwa kococeko, ukungadibaniIzicelo ziquka:

Ukuqinisekiswa kweleyibhile (imihla yokuphelelwa, iibhakhowudi, izinto ezibangela i-allergen)
Ukuthembeka kwetywina kwaye ulungelelwaniso lwe-cap kwiibhotile okanye kwiipakethi
Ukufunyanwa kwezinto ezingcolisayo (izinto zasemzini, izinto ezingekhoyo)
Ukubeka amanqaku kunye nokuhlela ngokusekelwe kubungakanani, umbala, okanye ukuvuthwa

Umbono womatshini wenza ukuba kulandelwe I-FDA, I-HACCPkunye I-ISO 22000 imigangatho, ngelixa iphucula ukusebenza kakuhle kwemigca kunye nokulandeleka kwayo.

4. Amashishini eMithi kunye nezixhobo zonyango

Apha, ukuchaneka kunye nokuthobela imithetho kubalulekile. Umbono womatshini usetyenziselwa oku kulandelayo:

Ukufunyanwa kwenqanaba lokugcwalisa kwiibhotile nakwiisirinji
Ukuqinisekiswa kweleyibhile kunye nekhowudi ukulandelelana kunye nokulandeleka
Ukuhlolwa kokupakishwa ubungqina bokuphazamisa okanye izinto ezifakiweyo ezingekhoyo
Ukuhlolwa kwenxalenye yesirinji okanye ye-implant ngeempazamo zokuhlanganisa okanye ungcoliseko

Ezi nkqubo mazihambelane 21 CFR Icandelo 11, UMDLALO 5, kunye neminye izikhokelo ezingqongqo.

Isicelo sokuHlela iMibono yoMshini kunye neLogistics

5. Uthungelwano kunye nokuPakisha

Kwi-automation yokugcina impahla kunye ne-logistics, amandla okubona oomatshini:

Ukufundwa kwekhowudi yebhakhowudi kunye ne-QR ngesantya esiphezulu
Ukulinganisa iipasele kunye nokuhlela
Ukuhlolwa kwePallet (ulwalathiso, ukuphakama kwenqwaba, umonakalo)
Ukuqinisekiswa kweelebheli kunye ne-OCR kwiindawo zokuzalisekisa

Idibene ne iinkqubo zokukhetha nokubeka irobhothi, umbono uqinisekisa ukuphathwa kwe-odolo ngokuchanekileyo nangokukhawuleza kwimisebenzi ye-e-commerce kunye ne-3PL.

6. Amacandelo Akhulayo

Umbono womatshini ukhula ngokukhawuleza kwi:

Ezolimo – ukwahlulahlula iziqhamo, ukufumanisa izinambuzane, kunye nokujonga izityalo
Ukuphinda kusetyenziswe kunye nolawulo lwenkunkuma – yokuhlelwa kwezinto kunye nokuhlela
Ilaphu – ukuze kuhambelane nokuluka kunye nokufumanisa iziphene zelaphu
Ulwakhiwo kunye neziseko zophuhliso – uhlalutyo lwee-crack kunye nokuhlolwa kwesakhiwo kusetyenziswa iidrone

Ukukhetha iKhompyutha yeShishini eyiyo yoMbono woMshini

Ukukhetha ikhompyutha efanelekileyo yemizi-mveliso kubalulekile ukuze kusebenze kakuhle inkqubo yombono womatshini. Ukukhetha kuxhomekeke kwisantya semveliso, ukuchaneka kokuhlolwa, kunye neemeko zokusingqongileyo:

Isantya seMveliso – Imigca yemveliso ekhawulezayo ifuna iikhamera ezinesantya esikhawulezayo. Iikhompyutha zoshishino ezixhotyiswe ngee-CPU ezinamandla, ii-GPU, okanye ukukhawuleziswa kwe-FPGA ziqinisekisa ukucutshungulwa kwemifanekiso ngexesha langempela ngaphandle kwemiqobo.
Uvavanyo oluchanekileyo – Imisebenzi efuna imifanekiso enesisombululo esiphezulu okanye ukufunyanwa kweziphene ezisekelwe kwi-AI ifuna iikhompyutha zoshishino ezikwaziyo ukuphatha iiseti zedatha zemifanekiso emikhulu nokwenza izibalo ezintsonkothileyo ngokufanelekileyo.
Iimeko zeNdalo – Iikhompyutha zoshishino kufuneka zenzelwe iimeko ezinzima zefektri. Iiyunithi ezingangeni uthuli, ezingashukumiyo, nezikwaziyo ukumelana nobushushu obuphezulu zigcina ukusebenza okuzinzileyo phantsi kweemeko ezinzima.

Ngokuvumelanisa ukhetho lwekhompyutha yemizi-mveliso nezi zinto, abavelisi banokuqinisekisa ukusebenza okuthembekileyo, banciphise ixesha lokungasebenzi, kwaye bafumane iziphumo zovavanyo ezichanekileyo, okwenza inkqubo ikwazi ukwandiswa kwaye ifikeleleke ngexabiso eliphantsi.

FAQ

1. Yintoni umbono womatshini?

Umbono womatshini bubuchwepheshe obusebenzisa iikhamera, izibane, iilensi, kunye neenkqubo zokucubungula iikhompyutha ukuze zibambe, zihlalutye, kwaye zitolike imifanekiso ukuze zihlolwe ngokuzenzekelayo, ziqatshelwe, kwaye zilinganiswe. Ayigcini nje ngoku "bona" izinto kodwa ikwaqonda ngokukhawuleza nangokuchanekileyo ulwazi olubonakalayo ukuze yenze izigqibo.

2. Idlala yiphi indima iikhompyutha zoshishino kwiinkqubo zokubona koomatshini?

Iikhompyutha zoshishino zisebenza njengesiseko sokucubungula iinkqubo zokubona koomatshini. Ziphatha uhlalutyo lwemifanekiso olukhawulezayo, zisebenzisa ii-algorithms zokuhlola ezisekelwe kwi-AI, kwaye zidibana ngokungenamthungo neenethiwekhi zefektri kunye nee-PLC, ziqinisekisa ukwenziwa kwezigqibo ngexesha langempela kunye nomgangatho wemveliso ohambelanayo.

3. Iikhompyutha zoshishino zahluke njani kwiikhompyutha eziqhelekileyo kwizicelo zombono womatshini?

Ngokungafaniyo neePC ezikumgangatho wabathengi, iikhompyutha zoshishino zenzelwe ukusebenza ngokuthembekileyo kwiindawo ezinzima ezinothuli, ukungcangcazela, kunye nokuguquguquka kobushushu. Zibonelela ngemijikelo yobomi obude, iindlela zokunxibelelana eziqinileyo, kunye nehardware enokwandiswa yokuseta iikhamera ezininzi kunye nokukhawuleziswa kwe-AI.

4. Zeziphi iimpawu ekufuneka ndiziqwalasele xa ndikhetha ikhompyutha yemizi-mveliso yokujonga koomatshini?

Izinto eziphambili ziquka:

Amandla okucubungula: Inkxaso yeeCPU, iiGPU, okanye i-FPGA yohlalutyo lomfanekiso ngexesha langempela
Uqhagamshelo: Inkxaso yeGigE, iUSB3 Vision, iCamera Link, kunye nee-interfaces ze-I/O
Ukuqina kwendalo: Uyilo olungenafeni, uluhlu olubanzi lobushushu, kunye nokumelana nokungcangcazela
Ukukhula: Izithuba ezinokwandiswa zee-frame grabbers okanye ii-AI accelerators

5. Ngaba iikhompyutha zoshishino zingayiphatha i-AI kunye nokufunda okunzulu kwimbono yomatshini?

Ewe. Iikhompyutha zoshishino ezisebenza kakuhle zinokusebenzisa i-AI kunye ne-algorithms yokufunda nzulu ukuze kufunyanwe iziphene, ukuhlelwa kwezinto, kunye nokwakhiwa kwakhona kwe-3D ngexesha langempela, okuvumela ukuba uhlolwe ngobuchule, ngokukhawuleza kwaye kuncitshiswe iimpazamo zomntu.

6. Ngawaphi amashishini azuza kakhulu kwiikhompyutha zoshishino kwimbono yoomatshini?

Iikhompyutha zoshishino zibalulekile kumashishini afana nala:

Ukuhlolwa kweziphene zomphezulu wemoto kunye nokuqinisekiswa kwendibano
I-elektroniki - Ukuhlolwa kwe-PCB kunye nohlalutyo lwezinto ezincinci
Ukutya neziselo - ukuhlolwa kokupakishwa kunye nokufunyanwa kwezinto ezingcolisayo
Amayeza – ukujonga izinga lokuzaliswa kwebhotile kunye nokulandelelaniswa kwayo
Uthungelwano – ukuskena iibhakhowudi kunye nokuhlelwa kweepasela